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Plastics History
The history of plastics goes back more than 100 years - however,
compared to other materials, plastics are relatively modern. Their
usage over the past century has enabled society to make huge technological
advances to take us towards the new Millennium. Pre-20th Century
Although we think of plastic as a modern invention, there have
always been "natural polymers" such as amber, tortoiseshell
and horn. These materials behaved very much like manufactured
plastics and were often put to similar uses to today's materials
- for example, horn, which becomes transparent and pale yellow
when heated, was used to replace glass in the 18th century. The
original breakthrough for the first semi-synthetic plastics material
- cellulose nitrate - occurred in the late 1850s and involved
the modification of cellulose fibers with nitric acid. Cellulose
nitrate had many false starts and financial failures following
its invention by a Briton, Alexander Parkes, who exhibited it
as the world's first plastic in 1862. Firstly known as Parkesine,
then Xylonite, it began to find success in the production of objects
such as ornaments, knife handles, boxes and more flexible products
such as cuffs and collars.
It was the game of billiards that provided the unlikely cause
for its eventual commercial success. The American Hyatt brothers
were attempting to develop a substitute for the ivory billiard
ball and in so doing came up with a process for manufacturers
using a nitrate cellulose composition. Celluloid was thus born
and was patented in 1870 - its early commercial success lay in
dental plates for false teeth.
1900s
However, the flammability of cellulose nitrate prevented its use
in mass production rapid molding techniques. The early 1900s saw
the development of cellulose acetate to get around this problem.
This was widely used as safety film to stiffen and waterproof
the fabric wings and fuselage of early airplanes. Casein formaldehyde
was also developed at this time. Based on fat-free milk and rennin,
this could be hardened and shaped to make buttons, buckles and
knitting needles.
Bakelite - a hard, dark plastic - was discovered by Leo Baekeland,
a Belgian-born chemist in 1907 and was the first truly synthetic
plastic to be patented. Made from carboxylic acid and formaldehyde,
Bakelite resin was normally reinforced with fillers (either fibers
or woodflour).
Bakelite brought plastics into consumers' lives in a variety of
ways. Its excellent insulating properties made it an ideal material
for hairdryers, radio cabinets, ashtrays and cameras. Bakelite
also had the benefit of looking similar to wood, so was a popular
choice for car dashboards and knobs.
It was also used to impregnate paper or fabric to make high pressure
laminates for the emerging telecommunications industry.
The first patent for PVC was registered in 1914. Cellophane was
also discovered during this period.
The 1920s
In 1922 a German chemist, Hermann Staudinger, made a discovery
which would change the whole face of the plastics industry. Through
working with synthesized rubber, he found that plastics are made
from chains of thousands of molecules linked together, known as
"superpolymers" - a find which prompted the invention
of many new plastics.
1922 - first spectacles molded in cellulose acetate (in France)
The 20s saw the production of the first moldable light-colored
plastic, made by combining carbon dioxide and ammonia with formaldehyde.
The resulting product, urea formaldehyde, could be used to great
visual effect and was highly popular in making tableware. By adding
colored powder to the white mixture, it was possible to produce
patterns which looked like marble, alabaster or stone, so for
the first time, plastics were not just a functional choice, but
also an aesthetic one. These urea resins also found important
industrial applications in varnishes, laminates and adhesives.
In 1921 the first injection molding machine was designed.
The 1930s
Two developments during the 30s swept the plastics industry into
mass production. Firstly, manufacturers learnt how to produce
plastics from petroleum - polystyrene, acrylic polymers and polyvinyl
chloride were all made in this way. Secondly, injection molding,
which had always been problematical, became much improved and
fully automated in 1937. Both developments were good news for
the consumer as they brought down the price of the end-product
and put plastics within easy grasp of everyone. Development of
PVC continued apace with the first use in insulating electric
cables in 1930.
Polyamide was also developed at this time, and polystyrene was
first produced commercially in 1937 when an economic way of preventing
polymerization during storage was found.
Polymethyl methacrylate (acrylic or "Perspex") was also
invented at this time, and by 1935 it was starting to be used
in aircraft cockpit manufacture and in other protective screens.
The first epoxy resins were developed in Switzerland in 1938.
Main applications at that time were in dentistry and medicine,
and, due to their adhesive qualities as a constituent of glue,
plastics became an increasingly common sight in the home as urea
formaldehyde became more widespread. This was an era when, for
the first time, consumers were demanding convenience, mainly because
fewer people were employing domestic staff. As a result, hygienic,
easy-to-clean surfaces and labor saving devices were becoming
popular. An attractive, light-colored, hard-wearing plastic, urea
formaldehyde suited modern lifestyles perfectly and was used to
make items such as molded egg cups, cruet sets, light fittings,
cream makers and picnic sets.
The 1940s
World War II meant a huge boost for plastics. As a domestically
generated resource which had by this time become relatively cheap,
plastic was able to take over from imported materials. In terms
of design technology, consumer products benefited from the new
techniques which had been developed out of necessity during the
war. The production of plastics which are still used widely today
- such as polyethylene, polystyrene, polyester, PET and silicones
- all grew during the wartime period. Silicones, for example,
became widely used as water repellants and in heat resistant paints.
Nylon, the first totally man-made fiber, had been discovered at
the end of the 20s, but was not put to great use until the 40s.
Consisting of long filaments which could be spun and woven or
knitted, the new plastic was used to make everything from parachutes
to upholstery.
PVC really took off during this decade and into the 1950s. It
could be used, among other things, to make records. This discovery
was particularly well-timed considering the boom of the popular
music industry in this era. The 1950s The 50s saw the growth of
decorative laminates such as Formica, first popular in the United
States where they were used widely in espresso bars and dinettes.
At the same time, molded melamine formaldehyde resin was becoming
widely used as a component in tableware and became a popular alternative
to china - so much so that by the late 1950s, as much as 50% of
all dinnerware sold was molded using this material. A first for
the car industry: 1956 saw the major use of plastics in car body
design when the roof of a Citroen DS was made from unsaturated
polyester reinforced with fiberglass. The combination of polyester
and fiberglass became a popular choice thereafter in the production
of body parts for cars and boats.
Polyethylene was first discovered in 1933, but it was in the 50s
that the material really took off thanks to a new, safer production
method. The new material which had a high melting point and could
be used where other plastics had failed, was used for dustbins,
baby baths and chemical containers. It was also the material behind
one of the most famous symbols of suburban life: Tupperware.
The 1950s
During the 50s plastics became a major force in the clothing industry.
Polyester, Lycra and nylon were easy to wash, needed no ironing
and were often cheaper than their natural alternatives and, as
a result, were hugely popular with consumers tired of the tyranny
of housework.
The 1960s
In a decade renowned for its emphasis on style and fashion, the
fact that plastics had become highly developed was a huge advantage.
This led to the introduction of a range of innovative new products
in the fashion world, including soft and hard foams with a protective
skin, wet-look polyurethane and transparent acrylic. Home decor
also benefited, where eccentric designer furniture such as inflatable
chairs and acrylic lights became "must haves" for fashion-conscious
consumers.
1960 saw the first use of PVC to bottle mineral water.
The first domestic items made from molded polypropylene were developed
from 1963 onwards - including combs, lemonsqueezers and bottle
stoppers.
The so called "Space Race" began in the late 60s. Plastics
played an important part in the production of spacecraft components
and equipment: its lightness and versatility made it a material
of choice.
The 1970s Plastics were playing an increasing "behind the
scenes" role in technological advances which began to take
off during this decade. In engineering and the emerging computer
industry, new "super polymers" were beginning to replace
metals. Among other things, the hygienic nature of plastics meant
that use in medicine became increasingly important. However, on
the style front, the 70s saw an inevitable backlash against the
synthetic swinging sixties, with consumers favoring a return to
natural materials like wood, cotton, steel and leather. This trend
coincided with a world energy crisis and resulting shortage of
materials and for the first and only time in the history of plastics,
there was a slump in the industry.
The Punk craze in the late 70s provoked a slight resurgence of
plastics among consumers with vinyl used in clothes and fashion
accessories.
The 1980/90s
The explosion in global communications during the 80s and 90s
has been made largely possible through the use of plastics. Equipment
such as computers, fiber optic cables and telephones all use plastics
widely in their design to provide strength, light weight, insulation
and flexibility. Transport also has started using plastics more
widely. Plastics use in cars jumped 11% between 1974-88, and in
the 1980s, the first flight tests of the all-plastics aircraft
took place.
Shopping habits have also changed enormously with the emergence
of super- and hypermarkets and less and less purchase of fresh
foods from dedicated suppliers. Plastics are now widely used in
packaging and play a key role in helping transport maintain the
freshness of the products we buy from these outlets.
Laminates saw a revival in the interior design world. But unlike
the decorative laminates of the 60s, the new breed were at the
upper end of the market. The Milan Furniture Show in 1981 showed
"The New International Design" - furniture using multicoloured
plastic laminates which were sold at anything from £2,000
upwards.
Plastics became so highly developed that they could not only imitate
but in some cases exceed the performance of the real thing! For
example PVC which looks like leather, and solid surfaces which
imitate granite or marble are nowavailable.
Solid surface materials were launched during the 80s. Harder than
hardwood, the surfaces could be routed, sandblasted and beveled
to produce interesting effects, which made them popular for use
in the kitchen.
source: Wageningen University University for Life Sciences, Department
of Agrotechnology and Food Sciences. Processing of Agricultural
Raw Materials for Non-Food Products. P050-217. http://www.ftns.wau.nl/agridata/apme/plastics.htm
27oct01
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